Module 2 provides an overview of the connection between criminology and public policy. An informed and effective social policy is the byproduct of empirical work undertaken by dedicated social scientists who seek to understand the nature and extent of crime within the context of existing criminal justice and social policy. This module explores those natural and yet inextricable links between criminology and public policy, which often dilutes the impact and influence that research findings might reveal. Particular attention is given to understanding the policy-relevant research that in many instances has little to no measurable effect on public policy.
After completing this module, you should be able to:
Criminology and public policy share a close and interconnected relationship. Criminology is the scientific study of crime, criminal behavior, and the criminal justice system. Public policy, on the other hand, refers to the actions and decisions made by governmental bodies to address societal issues and shape the overall functioning of society.
The link between criminology and public policy is multifaceted and revolves around the understanding, prevention, control, and response to crime. Criminological research and theories provide valuable insights into the causes and consequences of criminal behavior, which in turn inform the development and implementation of effective public policies.
Here are some key aspects of the link between criminology and public policy:
It is important to recognize that the link between criminology and public policy is a dynamic and ongoing process. Criminologists and policymakers need to collaborate, share knowledge, and engage in an iterative dialogue to develop effective policies that promote public safety, crime prevention, and justice.
The relationship between criminology and public policy – Criminology as a field of study, has influenced or been influenced by public policy on crime and justice issues. It also examines the arguments for and against criminological participation in the policy arena.
The emergence of criminology and criminal justice – The historical development of criminology as a theoretically oriented discipline and criminal justice as a more policy-oriented field. It discusses how the rise of crime rates, the politicization of crime policy, and the growth of the criminal justice system have shaped the academic fields of criminology and criminal justice.
The what-works movement and evidence-based criminology – The effort of some criminologists to provide policy-relevant research that evaluates the effectiveness of various crime prevention and intervention programs. It also reviews the debates over what constitutes valid and reliable evidence and how high the standards for evidence should be.
Four ways that individual criminologists can engage in the policy process: (1) addressing policy implications of their research, (2) working with policy-involved organizations, (3) directly inserting themselves in the legislative process, and (4) engaging the media. It also suggests some levels of organizational participation for criminological associations, such as advocating for quality data and research funding, commissioning white papers, supporting expert testimony, and taking formal positions on policy issues.
The state of criminology as a field related to public policy is changing and that there are both difficulties and benefits of criminological involvement in the policy arena. It calls for a more proactive and interactive approach to inform policy with the best available evidence.
The evidence-based approach can be applied to policymaking in various fields. The first step is to identify the problem. That is, clearly define the problem that needs to be addressed. This could be a societal issue, a health concern, an educational gap, etc.
Second, conduct rigorous research to gather data and evidence about the problem. This could involve reviewing existing literature, conducting new studies, or analyzing data.
Third, conduct an analysis of the data, which requires the use statistical methods to analyze the data and draw conclusions. The goal is to understand the causes and effects of the problem, and to identify potential solutions.
Fourth, based on the evidence derived from the statistical analysis, develop policy proposals that are likely to address the problem effectively. These proposals should be grounded in the evidence, not just in theory or ideology.
The fifth step involves the implementation of the policy. That is, put the policy into action. This could involve passing legislation, launching programs, allocating resources, etc.
Sixth and arguably one of the most important steps involves evaluation. Meaning, after the policy has been implemented, conduct further research to evaluate its effectiveness. This could involve collecting new data, conducting surveys, etc.
Finally, results derived from the evaluation must contribute to the refining of the policy as needed. This could involve adjusting, scaling up successful initiatives, or trying new approaches.
This process ensures that policies are not just based on theory or ideology but are grounded in evidence about what works. It promotes accountability, transparency, and effectiveness in policymaking. It’s important to note that this is an iterative process – policies should be continually monitored, evaluated, and refined based on new evidence. This approach can be applied to any field, from healthcare and education to environmental policy and criminal justice. It requires a commitment to rigorous research, open-mindedness to the evidence, and a willingness to make policy decisions based on what the evidence shows, rather than what one might intuitively believe or prefer.
Cybercriminology – combines coursework within the behavioral sciences and Computer Science to study the growing problem of computer crime.
Want to learn more about the study of Cybercriminology? Then CLICK HERE and explore the British Journal of Cyber Criminology (BJCC). The BJCC is a peer-reviewed online (open access) journal focused on the criminal activities that occur within the cyber environment, such as those involving computer networks, information systems, and the internet.
2. Voluntarily read Chapter 50: Program Evaluation, by Jodi Lane, University of Florida (Lane, 2009)
3. Review Department of Justice’s What is G.R.E.A.T. (accessed, January 2024)
4. Watch United States Department of Justice (DOJ). Office of Justice Programs (OJP). National Institute of Justice (NIJ). Strengthen Science. Advance Justice.
5. Watch the National Institute of Justice’s Desistance From Crime: Implications for Research, Policy, and Practice (Start @ 6:33 – Stop @ 1:36:57) [NIJ, November 29, 2021]
6. Watch York County Virginia U.S. YPSO D A R E Program 2023 [located below]
The Chicago Police Department is helping kids have a G.R.E.A.T. summer! The Gang Resistance Education And Training program is a gang violence prevention initiative. Dozens of 3rd-8th graders from across the city are taking part in a summer program focusing on life skills, self-esteem building and sports. It’s all to help keep kids safe and active, and plant seeds of positive interaction with the police.
8. Listen to PBS WHYY: The police experiment that changed what we know about foot patrol (by Liz Tung, November 15, 2019) [last accessed, August 2023) [click on “Listen” link within the webpage]
9. Listen to the National Institute of Justice’s (NIJ) Justice Today Podcast: Progressing from Evidence to Action (21.27). Scroll down to the featured item from within the podcast list.
To access the PPT file, click HERE . Note that files are updated regularly and as such might change in content and appearance.
Read, Review, Watch and Listen to all listed materials by the due date listed within the course LMS (i.e., Blackboard) site.
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Students should review the course syllabus to determine the assignment of this activity.
This is a copy of the module’s activity that students find within Blackboard. For that reason, refer to the Activities page to submit your work for review.
The purpose of this activity is to explore examples of how social scientists, most specifically criminologists, have contributed to public policy within the digital environment.
Criminologists have made significant contributions to the understanding and combating of cybercrime. For example, they continue to provide accurate information to policymakers to develop effective strategies to combat cybercrime. e.g., Better Cybercrime Metrics Act (May 2022). Their research findings can inform policy decisions, ensuring they are based on evidence rather than just theory or ideology.
Those in the social sciences have conducted extensive research to better understand the criminogenic environment of the online world. They have expounded on existing theory to explain why individuals engage in cybercrime within the context of traditional theoretical frameworks, such as Rational Choice Theory, Social Learning Theory, Strain Theory, Routine Activities Theory, and Self-Control Theory. Improved theoretical models help us understand the various motives, opportunities, and situational factors that contribute to cybercrime and in turn provide the basis for policy-based recommendations.
Because cybercrime is a complex issue, it requires knowledge from various fields such as Criminology, Victimology, Sociology, Internet Science, and Computer Science. Therefore, criminologists have embraced an interdisciplinary approach, which is crucial for a comprehensive understanding of cybercrime and its prevention. To that end, criminologists play a crucial role in advancing our understanding of cybercrime, training future cybersecurity professionals, informing policy decisions, and promoting an interdisciplinary approach to tackling cybercrime.
Cybercrime – Criminal activities that target a computer or network to cause damage or steal information, or the use of computers to conduct criminal activity, like using the internet to facilitate the sale or exchange of illicit goods.
Department of Justice (DOJ) – The federal department responsible for enforcing the law and administering justice, which oversees several law enforcement agencies, such as the FBI, Secret Service, and DEA.
National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS) – A system that collects reports on crime from law enforcement across the country, maintained by the FBI.
Public Policy – Refers to the decisions, actions, and guidelines adopted by governments or public authorities to address societal issues, regulate behavior, and promote the collective well-being of the public. It encompasses a wide range of laws, regulations, programs, and initiatives that shape and guide the actions of governments and public institutions.
Ransomware – A type of malicious software that encrypts the victim’s files or blocks access to the computer system until a ransom is paid.
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An international association established in 1963 to foster professional and scholarly activities in the field of criminal justice. ACJS promotes criminal justice education, research, and policy analysis within the discipline of criminal justice for both educators and practitioners.
× Close definitionDescribes methods and approaches that criminal justice agencies, i.e., law enforcement, courts, corrections, rely on during prevention, enforcement, and punishment activities.
× Close definitionAn international organization whose members pursue scholarly, scientific, and professional knowledge concerning the measurement, etiology, consequences, prevention, control, and treatment of crime and delinquency.
× Close definitionA validated, copyrighted, comprehensive drug and violence prevention education program for children in kindergarten through 12th grade. D.A.R.E.® represents a collaborative effort between school and law enforcement personnel. The program is nationally coordinated by D.A.R.E.® America, with input received from State and local agencies and communities.
× Close definitionNot as common as other forms of program evaluation in criminal justice as impact and cost are often of greater significance. Cost-benefit analysis and cost-effectiveness analysis are two basic types and used to determine whether the benefits gained from a particular program/initiative justify the cost.
× Close definitionRefers to a systematic and objective investigation conducted to assess the effectiveness, efficiency, relevance, and impact of a program, policy, intervention, or project. It aims to gather evidence and information that can inform decision-making, improve program design and implementation, and ultimately contribute to better outcomes.
Evaluation research involves the use of various research methods, such as surveys, interviews, observations, and data analysis, to collect and analyze data related to the specific program or intervention under examination. The key focus is on evaluating the extent to which the program or intervention achieves its stated objectives and desired outcomes, and identifying factors that contribute to its success or failure.
The evaluation process typically includes defining clear evaluation questions, developing appropriate evaluation designs and methods, collecting, and analyzing data, interpreting findings, and providing actionable recommendations. It may also involve assessing the program's efficiency in terms of resource utilization, cost-effectiveness, and sustainability.
Evaluation research plays a crucial role in informing evidence-based decision-making, improving program effectiveness, and facilitating accountability. It is widely used in various fields, including education, healthcare, social sciences, public policy, and nonprofit organizations, to evaluate the impact and outcomes of interventions, policies, and initiatives.
× Close definitionAn approach that requires that high-quality evaluation research form the basis of policy or practice in the field of criminology and criminal justice.
× Close definitionRefers to the presentation of specialized knowledge or opinions by a qualified expert during a legal proceeding, such as a trial, hearing, or legislative session. Expert witnesses are individuals, e.g., criminologists, with recognized expertise and experience in a specific field or subject matter relevant to the case at hand. They are called upon to provide their professional opinions, interpretations, or analysis to assist the court or jury in understanding complex issues or technical matters beyond the understanding of the average person.
× Close definitionIn the context of program evaluation, are assessments conducted during the development and implementation phases of a program or intervention. These evaluations are primarily focused on providing feedback, identifying strengths and weaknesses, and informing ongoing improvements to the program. Formative evaluations are an essential component of the evaluation process, as they help shape and refine the program as it evolves.
× Close definitionAn evidence-based and effective gang and violence prevention program built around school-based, law enforcement officer-instructed classroom curricula. The Program is intended as an immunization against delinquency, youth violence, and gang membership for children in the years immediately before the prime ages for introduction into gangs and delinquent behavior.
× Close definitionA specific type of evaluation research that focuses on assessing the causal impact or effects of a program, policy, intervention, or project. It aims to determine whether and to what extent the intervention has achieved its intended outcomes, and whether any observed changes can be attributed to the intervention rather than other factors.
The primary goal of an impact evaluation is to understand the cause-and-effect relationship between the intervention and the observed outcomes. It involves comparing the outcomes of the group or individuals who received the intervention (the treatment group) with those who did not (the control group) or with a baseline measure before the intervention was implemented.
Impact evaluations employ rigorous research methods and techniques to ensure that the observed changes can be confidently attributed to the intervention. Commonly used methods include randomized controlled trials (RCTs), quasi-experimental designs, and matching techniques. These methods aim to minimize biases and confounding factors, allowing for a more accurate estimation of the intervention's impact.
The evaluation process typically involves defining clear evaluation questions, developing appropriate research designs, collecting data through surveys, interviews, observations, or other means, analyzing data using statistical or qualitative techniques, interpreting the findings, and drawing conclusions about the intervention's impact.
Impact evaluations are frequently conducted in various fields, including education, healthcare, social services, development programs, and public policy. They provide valuable evidence on the effectiveness, efficiency, scalability, and sustainability of interventions, helping policymakers, program implementers, and funders make informed decisions about allocating resources, improving program design, and maximizing desired outcomes.
× Close definitionAlso known as Intensive Supervision Probation (ISP), is an approach to community-based supervision of individuals who have been convicted of a crime and are serving a probation sentence. ISP aims to provide a higher level of supervision and support than traditional probation while still allowing the individuals to remain in the community instead of being incarcerated.
ISP typically involves more frequent and intensive contact between probation officers and probationers compared to standard probation. The specific components and requirements of ISP can vary depending on jurisdiction and the nature of the offense, but common features may include: (1) increased supervision, (2) enhanced surveillance, (3) treatment and support services, and (4) case management.
× Close definitionConducted between 1972 and 1973, was a landmark study in the field of policing and crime prevention. The experiment aimed to evaluate the impact of different levels of police presence, specifically preventive patrol, on crime rates and public perception of safety.
The experiment was designed and implemented by researchers from the Kansas City Police Department, in collaboration with criminologists. The study divided the city into three groups: one group received traditional levels of police patrol, another group experienced greatly increased patrol, and a third group had almost no patrol presence. The experiment employed a randomized control trial design, with different areas assigned to each group.
The key findings of the Kansas City Preventive Patrol Experiment challenged the conventional wisdom that a high level of police presence, in the form of preventive patrol, was necessary to deter crime and enhance public safety.
× Close definitionRefers to the series of steps and procedures followed by a legislative body, such as a parliament, congress, or legislature, to propose, debate, amend, and enact laws. It involves the development, consideration, and approval of legislation, including bills and resolutions, that govern various aspects of a country's legal framework.
× Close definitionA systematic process used to identify and evaluate the needs, gaps, and priorities of a specific target population or community. It involves gathering information and analyzing data to understand the current situation, assess the needs and challenges faced by the population, and determine the resources and interventions required to address those needs effectively.
A needs assessment is a valuable tool used in various fields, such as public health, education, social services, community development, and organizational planning. It helps ensure that resources are allocated efficiently, interventions are tailored to the specific needs of the population, and desired outcomes are achieved effectively.
× Close definitionA rigorous evaluation process used to assess the quality, validity, and credibility of scholarly work before it is published. It involves having experts in the relevant field, known as peers or referees, review and provide feedback on an author's work, such as research articles, conference papers, or book manuscripts. The purpose of peer review is to ensure that published research meets high academic standards and contributes to the advancement of knowledge.
× Close definitionA systematic assessment and analysis of the implementation, delivery, and operations of a program, intervention, or policy. It focuses on understanding how the program is being implemented and the processes involved in delivering the intended services or activities. The primary aim of process evaluation is to provide insights into program operations, identify areas for improvement, and assess fidelity to the program model.
× Close definitionRefers to the decisions, actions, and guidelines adopted by governments or public authorities to address societal issues, regulate behavior, and promote the collective well-being of the public. It encompasses a wide range of laws, regulations, programs, and initiatives that shape and guide the actions of governments and public institutions.
× Close definitionIn the context of program evaluation, summative evaluations play a crucial role in assessing the overall effectiveness and impact of a program. They provide insights into whether the program's objectives and goals have been achieved and whether the intended outcomes have been realized. Summative evaluations are typically conducted at the conclusion of the program's implementation and focus on making judgments about the program's success or effectiveness.
× Close definitionDetailed and authoritative documents that presents information, analysis, and proposals on a particular topic or issue. It is typically produced by a government, organization, or company to educate readers, provide insights, and offer recommendations or solutions related to a specific subject.
White papers are often used to address complex problems, introduce new policies or strategies, or present research findings. They serve as informative and persuasive documents, aiming to influence opinions, shape debates, and guide decision-making. White papers are widely used in various fields, including government, business, technology, healthcare, and education.
